Presidents of France 7: Felix Faure (1895-1899)

Felix Faure was born in 1841 in Paris. And unfortunately for him, he is remembered more for the manner of his death than anything he did in his life.  His father was a small scale furniture maker and he himself was a tanner and merchant based in Le Havre, where he became quite wealthy.  At the age of 40 he was elected to the national assembly and sat with the left party.  He was appointed as under-secretary of the colonies in 1882 in Ferry's and later in Tirard's ministry.  He became vice president of the assembly in 1893.  Under Charles DePuy he was appointed minister for the Navy the next year.   

The sudden resignation of the President Casimir-Perier precipitated his rise to President.  He was chosen essentially to prevent the ascendancy of Henri Brisson a perennial candidate who was on the far left and was considered not centrist enough to win. Faure was inoffensive, which was therefore a blessing.  In the year he became President Faure granted amnesty to anarchists who up to then had been living in exile.   In celebration of the Franco-Russian alliance, he received the Tsar on a state visit.   

Captain Albert Dreyfus

The Dreyfus affair broke during his tenure as President, and he sided with those who did not want to reopen the case, which gained him the enmity of pro-Dreyfus politicians such as Georges Clemenceau and the greatest champion of Dreyfus, the writer Emile Zola.  

He died suddenly of a stroke while making love in his office suite with Marguerite Steinheil, then 30 years old. He was 58.  His ingestion of an aphrodisiac containing quinine may have precipitated his death.  Steinheil  was his mistress and was married to a painter , certainly not an uncommon thing for a number of French politicians or even for certain Arkansas governors. 

Marguerite Steinheil

Steinheil went on to have affairs with a number of other important French figures of the age, until finally she married the 6th Baron of Abinger and lived in England.  She also was tried and acquitted for the murder of her stepmother and husband 1909, but with lingering suspicion hanging over her afterwards similar to that surrounding OJ Simpson.

Faure was not mourned by his political opponents who were not above making puns about the supposed sexual behavior that had led to his death.   Georges Clemenceau, perhaps the most famous French statesman of the age, said of Faure that "upon entering the void, he must have felt at home".    He was laid to rest in France's foremost cemetery, Pere Lachaise.

Tomb  of Felix Faure

Presidents of France 6: Jean Casimir-Perier 1894-1895

Jean Casimir-Perier was the French President only for a little over 6 months. 

 He was born in 1847 into a political family, being the grandson of  Casimir Pierre-Perier, who was premier for Louis Phillipe, and the son of Auguste Casimir-Perier, who was interior minister in the Thiers government.  He was chosen as counselor for the Aube Department and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for Aube until his election as President.   While his family had monarchist sympathies, he chose to side with left-republicans.  He was under secretary of State for War in the government of Jules Ferry.  From 1890-92 he was vice president of the Chamber of Deputies,  and in 1893 became speaker.  In 1893 on December 9, the anarchist August Vaillant throws a bomb in the chamber but fortunately nobody was killed. In response repressive measures against anarchism were passed in the chamber.  Vaillant was guillotined.

On June 25, 1894, President Carnot was stabbed to death in Lyon.  Casimir-Perier was elected President with support from the right shortly afterwards.  He was criticised by some as being "President of the Reaction".  As Casimir-Perier is a wealthy investor in the Anzin coal mines, he is ridiculed by the left as Casimir Anzin.  

  His unpopularity with the public was such that even his own ministers began to ignore him, and complaining of this, he resigned from the presidency after six months.

After that Casimir-Perier left politics and turned his attention to his holdings in mining.  He was supportive of the accused in the Dreyfus case in Rennes.  He turns down offers of the presidency by President Loubet in 1899.    In 1907 he died at the age of 60. 

Presidents of France: 5. Marie François Sadi Carnot (1887-1894)

Marie François Sadi Carnot was born in 1837 and became President of France in 1887 succeeding Jules Grevy who resigned after a scandal broke concerning Grevy's son in law. He was the son of Hippolyte Carnot, who served in the government of Napoleon.  Carnot's uncle was a physicist whose claim to fame was his achievements in the field of Thermodynamics and Carnot was himself trained as a civil engineer at the Ecole polytechnique and the Ecole Nationale de Ponts et Chaussees (National School of Bridges and Roads)

He was, because of his staunch republicanism, entrusted with  the prefecture of Seine-Inférieure and was shortly afterwards elected to the National Assembly representing Côte-d'Or.  When Grevy resigned, his reputation for honesty made him the obvious successor winning election by the National Assembly overwhelmingly.   At the outset of his term as President, Carnot was faced with the neo-militarist challenge of Boulanger until the latter was driven into exile.

Nevertheless another scandal broke in 1882 in which the Panama Canal Company's debt problems were concealed from the public by certain members of the government who apparently received bribes from Ferdinand de Lesseps.

de Lesseps

  De Lesseps had previously helped to bring the Suez Canal into existence.  This financial venture, when it collapsed caused many investors to lose their savings, eventually the US bought out the investments and succeeded in building the canal.    

Carnot established a Franco-Russian alliance and was at the height of his popularity when on June 24, 1894 he was stabbed to death by an Italian anarchist while sitting his his carriage.  The anarchist, Sante Geronimo Casario was guillotined a little less than 2 months later.

Assassination of Sadi Carnot

  His motive was said to be in revenge for the executions of other anarchists, beginning with Auguste Vaillant and Emile Henry.  

Carnot was laid to rest in the Pantheon after a large state funeral .July 1.    

Presidents of France: 4. Jules Grévy (1879-1887)

Jules Grevy is perhaps the only French President to have a zebra named after him.  English naturalist Emile Oustalet first described one in 1892 and named it after Grevy.   The government of Abyssinia gave Grevy one when he was French President in the 1880s.  The zebra is an endangered species found only in a small part of modern day Ethiopia and Kenya. 

Grevy's Zebra

Grevy himself
was born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey in 1807, a district in Eastern France in the Jura Mountains. He was called to the bar in 1837 and was consistently republican in his sentiments, through the years of the Orleanist monarchy.  After the 1848 revolution he foresaw the neo-monarchist plans of Louis Bonaparte and sought to prevent his ascendancy through constitutional means.  After the 1851 coup d'etat he was briefly under arrest but was released.  He reentered politics towards the end of the Second Empire in 1868 and sat in opposition to the monarchists before and after the fall of Napoleon III and his
disastrous Franco Prussian war. 

When Marshal MacMahon resigned in the face of rising left-republican opposition, Jules Grevy succeeded him in late January 1879.  Grevy announced his intention of never going against the popular will, and discontinued the prerogative of the executive to summarily dissolve the assembly and hold new elections.  He revised the constitution to weaken the executive powers.  The song "La Marseillaise" was officially restored as the national anthem 1879.  During his tenure as President, Grevy oversaw a number of anti-clerical "reforms" including the creation of teacher training schools that were strictly republican in outlook.  Unauthorized teaching by churches was outlawed, which caused many Jesuits to emigrate.  At the same time, for the first time,  colleges and high schools were created for women.  The freedom to assemble without official permission was granted in 1884.  In view of the sad experience of Louis Bonaparte, former members of the royal families (Bonapartist, Orleanist, Bourbon)  were made ineligible to run for office in the republic. In foreign policy Grevy was opposed to the Boulangist movement promoting an aggressive policy against Germany.  The French overseas possessions expanded with a protectorate over Tunisia established in 1881, in French Indochina, and over Madagascar in 1885.

He was easily reelected for a second term in 1885 but soon came to grief because of a scandal created when it was revealed that his son in law, Daniel Wilson, had been selling Legion of Honor awards to anyone willing to pay for them.   This scandal, for which he was only indirectly to blame, eventually led to his resignation in late 1887.  

During Grevy's terms in office and, specifically, on the occasion of the death of Victor Hugo,  he made the Pantheon  officially a kind of secular republican temple, which interred the heroes of the Republic as voted by the National Assembly.   In a similar way Les Invalides included  a secular mausoleum honoring and containing the mos eminent military dead of France.

Grevy died four years later from a pulmonary embolism in 1881 at the age of 74. 






 

Presidents of France: 3. Patrice de Mac-Mahon (1873-1879)

Mac-Mahon  was born in Sully in 1808 in the department Saône-et-Loire. He was descended from the old Irish Catholic aristocracy associated with County Clare.  The confiscation of lands from the time of Cromwell and then the support of James II against William III of England led to exile in France, their naturalization in 1749.  His grandfather was named Marquis de MacMahon by Louis XV.  The politics of the family was Catholic and royalist.  One of a very prolific clan, he was the 16th child of 17 in his father's family.  

MacMahon was educated at the Lycee Louis le Grand and at the Academy of St. Cyr, secondary school and military academy respectively.  He graduated in 1827.   As a soldier he served in Algeria, he was wounded in the assault on Constantine, was promoted to commander in the Foreign Legion, and became a Divisional General in 1852.  He also served with distinction in the Crimean War.  While serving in the Second War of Italian Independence which pitted the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire, he won a decisive battle at Magenta, and in gratitude Napoleon III created him the first duke of Magenta. 

Before the Franco-Prussian war he served as Governor-General of Algeria.  He returned when war broke out in 1870 and he served with Napoleon in this ill-fated campaign.  The encirclement of the army at Sedan, led to Napoleon III and Mac-Mahon being taken prisoner.  Released by the Prussian Army in the peace in 1871 he resumed his military service, leading troops in the assault of the Paris Commune which led to 6000 to 7500 deaths and many summary executions.  

In 1873 he was elected President of France, succeeding Adolphe Thiers.  He was staunchly monarchist and was supported by the conservative wing of the National Assembly.  He was a "Legitimist" a party of monarchists who favored the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, last seen in 1830, but was forced to countenance the republicans in his midst and sometimes in his government. 

Since the Franco-Prussian War there was a French garrison in Rome protecting the pope from the depredations of the Italian nationalists, who had succeeded in erasing all but the last vestiges of the Papal States.  When in 1877 two bishops of the Catholic church in France asked MacMahon to help resolve the issue, the republicans, it provoked an outroar and backlash by the republicans.  MacMahon allegedly started to make moves to restore the Bourbon monarchy under the

Le Compte de Chambord

Compte de Chambord, the grandson of Charles X.  In the elections of 1877 a left-republican majority was returned in the national assembly putting and end to such ideas and after another leftist victory in the Senatorial elections in 1879 MacMahon resigned.  He died in 1893 and was afforded full military honors and buried in Les Invalides in Paris.

Presidents of France: Adolphe Thiers (Aug 1871-May 1873)

2.  Adolphe Thiers (Aug 1871-May 1873)

Adophe Thiers was the second President of France.  He was born in Marseille in 1797.  He was trained in the law at the faculty at Aix-en-Provence and educated at the Marseille lycee. 
 
At first he was known as a historian for the French Revolution though another eminent British historian of the same revolution and literary figure, Thomas Carlyle, said that Thier's voluminous history was full of inaccuracies.    He was prime minister in the governments of Louis Phillipe in 1836, 1840, and in 1848, when Louis Phillipe went into exile, and again became a leader of the French government after Louis Napoleon III was deposed after having been humiliated militarily and taken prisoner at Sedan. 

Charles X,  made himself unpopular by advocating a staunch conservative Catholic policy, recommending among other things, the death penalty for theft or harming of the consecrated host.  Thiers advocated Charles X's overthrow prior to the revolution of 1830.  He found he could work with Louis Phillippe whose Orleanist branch of the royal family was more liberal.  His father, who had initially supported the revolution of 1789, nevertheless lost his head. 

As a politician during the regime of Louis Phillippe, he helped to bring the remains of Napoleon I back from St. Helena to be interred in a place of honor at Les Invalides, the military memorial for France's war dead. 

Thiers eventually fell from favor with Louis Phillippe when he advocated supporting militarily Egypt's Mohammed Ali Pasha in his struggles against the Ottoman Empire. 

He tried to straddle the divide between the conservative Catholics on the one hand and the more atheistic or at least secular Republicans on the other side.  He helped develop the Falloux Laws of 1850-51. These were designed to establish schools in communes with more than 500 persons, to decentralize education, and place it in the control of local Catholic congregations.  This was a conservative movement aimed at decreasing the power of the Republicans and anti-clerical factions in education.

After the fall of Louis Phillippe in 1848, he was not a big fan of Napoleon III, and was said to have declared that electing Napoleon III as president of France would be a disgrace. 

Alexandre Bixio

Alexandre Bixio at least claimed to have heard him say this, which lead Thiers to challenge him to a duel in the gardens of the palace (1).  Apparently neither man was seriously hurt however.  Bixio went on to fame as an atmospheric scientist and baloonist, and Thiers as the man who crushed the Paris Commune of 1871. 

Later Napoleon III became President of France.  When he later staged his coup d'etat and made himself emperor, Thiers was imprisoned for a while, then sent into exile.  The next year he was allowed to return to France, but stayed out of politics and turned once more to his work as a historian.
In 1863 he reentered politics and served in parliament as the leader of the anti-royalist faction there.

He appeared to be of two minds about French assertions of its power abroad.  At first supporting war with Prussia he abruptly switched to being against the war and favoring negotiations to resolve the issues with Bismarck. 

Bismarck and his prisoner

Bismarck refused, the Franco Prussian war broke out and when Napoleon III was captured along with a large body of troops, he was deposed.

Thiers was elected head of the provisional government of the new republic in late February 1871 and on 1st March 1871 they signed a peace with the German Coalition which held the northern 2/3 of France.

Meanwhile on March 18th an insurrection took place in Paris.  Thiers had cannons and other military materiel and his government moved to Versailles.  A socialist city government was elected in Paris. 

This was the start of the Paris commune.   In street fighting, the insurrection quickly resulted in thousands of Parisians being arrested, killed, tried and shot, or deported to the French colonies.  The Tuileries palace, a symbol of monarchism,  burned to the ground.  The Vendome column was toppled.


After peace was restored Thiers served as president of the third republic for two more years.  He was a protectionist and republican presiding over a national assembly dominated by monarchists.  Following a motion of no confidence that passed, Thiers resigned and his resignation accepted.  They elected Marshal Patrice de MacMahon as his successor.  Thiers died 4 years later at the age of 80.



(1) The Life of Louis Adolphe Thiers by Francios J. LeGof,  GP Putnam & Sons. 1879.  

Canadian Prime Ministers IX: Paul Martin and Stephen Harper

26.  Paul Martin (2003-2006)
Liberal Party.

Paul Edgar Philippe Martin was born in 1938 in Windsor Ontario, the son of Paul Joseph James Martin, who himself was a member of the Canadian Parliament for years and served in the cabinets of four Prime Ministers from Mackenzie King through Pierre Trudeau.   His roots were both French and English-Canadian. He graduated from St. Michael's College at the University of Toronto with a degree in history and philosophy in 1961.  He got a law degree from the University of Toronto Law School and was called to the bar in 1966.   For a number of years he was involved with the Canada Steamship Lines company, serving as executive assistant to the CEO and later as President and CEO.  

In 1984 he was considered for leadership of the Liberals after Turner was resoundingly defeated, however he lost out to Jean Chretien at that time and the two men soon became bitter political rivals within the Liberal Party.  In 1993 when the Liberals were swept into power, Turner, in spite of his antipathy to Chretien, was appointed finance minister.  This was at a time of turmoil in the Canadian economy.  He made deep cuts in public spending which eventually revived the economy in the private sector and enhanced government revenues.  Moody's revised upward Canada's bond rating back to AAA.  

He was chosen new Liberal leader and Prime Minister in late 2003 when Chretien resigned.  New elections were called in 2004, an in spite of the resurgence of Stephen Harper's Conservative party, the Liberals won a small plurality in parliament and formed a minority government.  

Changes made to the "equalization program" which ensured that the "have-not" provinces received aid for government service expenses led to conflict with Newfoundland and Labrador, and Nova Scotia over revenue from natural resources.    Martin was opposed to same-sex marriages, but reversed his position following court cases which favored legalization.  Thus the Civil Marriage Act was passed in 2005, making Canada the 4th nation in the world allowing same sex marriage.    The Martin government signed what is known as the Kelowna Accord, which was an effort to equalize health, education, and economic opportunity between First Nations peoples, Metis and Inuits and other Canadians.  

When the Gomery commission reported its investigation of the Sponsorship scandal, which uncovered corruption in the payment of advertising contracts designed to promote the role of the Federal government in Quebec, it indicated that there has been lack of oversight in the administration of funds.  The NDP, in the wake of these revelations started making demands on its coalition partner and this led to a vote of no confidence and the calling of early elections in 2006.    After his defeat in January 2006, Martin stepped down as Liberal party leader.  





27.  Stephen Harper (2006-present) Conservative Party of
Canada.
 
Harper was born in Toronto in 1959, the son of an accountant for Imperial Oil.  After dropping out of the University of Toronto, he moved to Edmonton, Alberta where he worked in the mailroom of Imperial Oil, then went to the University of Calgary where he earned both a bachelor's and then a master's degree in economics.  

He was a chief aide to Jim Hawkes a PC MP in Edmonton. Later, he broke with the Progressive Conservative Party and was later elected as the Reform Party candidate in 1993 after having been defeated in the previous election by his former boss, Jim Hawkes.    Not entirely happy with the Reform Party he resigned from his seat in parliament in 1997 and went on to head the National Citizen's Coalition.  

A persistent theme in Harper's career has been opposition to populism and "social conservatism" and support for "economic conservatism".  This led him to conflict with both Preston Manning and Stockwell Day.  When Day announced new leadership elections for the Reform Party in 2002, Harper stepped down from the NCC and was elected Reform Party leader later standing for and being elected to parliament from Calgary Southwest.  

The Reform Party soon became the "Canadian  Alliance" and then in 2003 merged with the Progressive Conservative Party to become the Conservative Party of Canada.  Early in 2004 Harper left his post as head of the opposition to run for leadership of the new party, and won.  

As Prime minister, Harper has had three governments, the first two as minority governments and a third, elected in 2011 as a majority.  The Goods and Services Tax was reduced from 7% to 5%.  The Federal Accountability act outlawed corporate and union contributions to federal campaigns.  In 2012 the government eliminated the Federal Long Gun Registry, as promised in their platform.   In 2011 Harper's government suceeded in tipping the balance in the Senate towards the conservatives filling six new vacancies with conservative senators.  The government made in the 2011 census the providing of detailed demographic information optional, which provoked a storm of protests from those who saw it as weakening the statistical framework upon which targeted government programs were based.  Harper has taken a basically pro-Israel stance which may have cost Canada a chance to gain a seat on the UN Security Council.  In 2007 Canada announced it has finalized an agreement with the European Free Trade Association, consisting of four European countries not in the European Union including Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.  

During the US Presidential campaign prior to Obama's getting the Democratic Party nomination, a campaign operative was reported to have reassured the Canadian government that Obama's public statements regarding possible "renegotiation" of NAFTA was just for domestic consumption and not to be taken seriously.   In the event, this turned out to be true, though at the time it was embarrassing to the Obama campaign.  

As Canadian governments must hold an election at most after a period of five years, its next election must be in 2016 or sooner, depending on the current political situation.  Recently Harper visited Israel and expressed pessimism at the resolution of the Syrian civil war and for the chances of democracy in Egypt.  Of the latter he said that Egypt was not ready for Democracy.